Wednesday, October 30, 2019

Finland Healthcare System versus United States System Term Paper

Finland Healthcare System versus United States System - Term Paper Example The American health care reform has been regarded as a great stride towards fixing the country’s 2.8 trillion dollar American healthcare industry. Finland has an effective and highly decentralized three-level public health care program alongside a smaller private health-care industry. This essay will compare and contrast the Finish and American healthcare systems. America lacks a universal healthcare system. In the country, the role of the federal government in healthcare delivery is complex, and commences to evolve (Patel &Rushefsky, 2014). Health insurance coverage is highly fragmented, with many public and private sources as well as extensive gaps in coverage rates across the American population (National Healthcare Quality Report and National Healthcare Disparities Report, 2012). The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services provides the Medicare program (a central program for those of age 65 and older, a few of the disabled, as well as those with end-stage renal ailments (Patel &Rushefsky, 2014). The unit works in collaboration with state governments to direct Medicaid and the Children’s Health Insurance Program (combined state-federal programs for particular low-income residents). Private insurance is moderated at the state level, but gener ­ally is permitted wide discretion in creating benefit packages (Patel &Rushefsky, 2014 ). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Actof 2010 was signed into law and it is meant to increase insurance coverage to legal inhabitants by 2014. The act provides for federally delegated health insurance to be executed in America with the Federal government subsidizing legitimate resident households with revenues up to 400% of the Government poverty level. In comparison, the population of Finland was about 5.6 million in 2013. A universal right to healthcare and social welfare services characterizes the country’s

Monday, October 28, 2019

Uniforms in schools today Essay Example for Free

Uniforms in schools today Essay Students wearing uniforms prevents violence in todays schools. Uniforms are equal and give students a sense of security because everyone is the same. Students need to be able to go to school to learn, that should be the sole purpose of going to school. These days most schools dont have dress codes and students wear whatever they want. These kinds of clothing can be distracting and disrespectful to the students. Girls wear revealing shirts and tank tops, guys wear pants that fall down, and they also wear distracting types of shirts with violence or vulgar language on them. Uniforms are a lot more respectable and a lot more mature, and they wont be a distraction to the students and the teachers. Now, some people would say that uniforms are a little too formal. There are many different kinds of uniforms however. Private schools such as catholic schools have more formal uniforms with collared shirts and plaid skirts for the girls. For the boys collared shirts, ties and cargo pants. Students these days really take advantage of the dress code, they wear whatever they want and a lot of them get in trouble for it. Many students are sent home during school hours because their clothing is inappropriate. These students waste valuable learning time, and distract other students from learning as well as the teacher. Disrupting the class can be prevented if students wear uniforms. Uniforms could solve the problem that every school faces, the problem of dealing with students who break the rules of the dress code. Unfortunately, there are many other problems in the schools these days but uniforms are a good place to start. Uniforms come in many different shapes and styles. No one uniform is alike. Many uniforms are similar to the schools colors, but most are not as formal as you would think. Uniforms are made for one purpose only, to make students equal. Students dont understand the importance of a good education. Some people disagree with uniforms because they believe in freedom of speech. They believe that they have the right to wear whatever they want to. People like to express themselves by the way of wearing their own style. Students express themselves in many different ways, but the most popular way that they express themselves is wearing what they want. Lots of students have different opinions on the situation, some agree and some disagree. My sister  goes to a Catholic school and she wears a uniform everyday. She enjoys the strict atmosphere of the school and she loves wearing a uniform. In her opinion, its saves money and you dont have to worry about what to wear everyday. Now some people would say that uniforms are expensive and you only wear them for a few years, plus there are different kinds of uniforms for different seasons. Plus people grow and you cant return them after wearing them. You can resell them but you can never get your money completely back. However, most people who go to private schools are rich, so they dont really care about spending money on uniforms every few years. Education gives you the ability to learn. It gives you a broad aspect of what life would be like after high school and college. A lot of people strive for a higher education, college. They believe that having a higher education will make them succeed in life more than just having a high school education. This may be true, but it isnt exactly a proven fact. Some people just arent made to go to college. Some do just fine with a high school degree. Everyone is different, it just depends how motivated you are and how far you want your education to go. The most important thing is an education, it shows how much you really want to learn by how far you go. Uniforms can do a lot of good in schools, it can prevent violence and keep students on track in school. Uniforms are not distracting and everyone is equal, no one can judge anyone if they are all wearing the same thing.

Saturday, October 26, 2019

Rate of Reaction :: Papers

Rate of Reaction Aim: To watch and keep record of the effects of a change in concentration on the rate of reaction. Word equation: Hydrochloric Acid + sodium thiosulphate ÃÆ'Â   Sulphur dioxide + Sodium Chloride + water 2HCl + Na2S203 ÃÆ'Â   2Na + SO2 + H2O Plan: In this experiment I will be testing the rate of reaction of Hydrochloric acid and Sodium Thiosulphate. The rate of reaction tells us how quickly a reaction happens, so I will increase the concentration of the hydrochloric acid each time I do the experiment, adding ÂÂ ¼ of distilled water to 2 molars of the acid therefore providing us with the concentrations 2, 1.5,1,0.5 and finally 0 to react with the acid. I will do a pretest first to see if the amounts of acid and Sodium Thiosulphate work and to see if there won't be any anomalous results. Equipment: Diagram of equipment: 2x beaker 4x conical flask 2x measuring cylinders Funnel X board Stopwatch Prediction: I predict that each time we increase the concentration of the Hydrochloric acid the amount of time it will take to react will decrease because the stronger the acidity the quicker it will react with the Sodium Thiosulphate as the more concentrated the acid solution the more successful collisions occur. The rate of reaction is how quickly the reaction happens and a reaction happens because of collisions between the reactants. [IMAGE] Concentration: this is the factor I'm going to study I will use the concentrations 0mol, 0.5mol, 1mol, 1.5mol and 2mol. Temperature: This has big effects on the rate of reaction because the hotter the reactants are the faster they react, this is because the molecules of the reactants move around more and faster so collide more often and quicker, as they collide they react, therefore as according to the collision theory the reaction is sped up. Catalysts: catalysts lower the activation energy of a reaction so with

Thursday, October 24, 2019

Clockwork Orange Essay

The decision to choose between good and evil is one simple choice that separates a human from being a machine. Being unable to choose from the two is â€Å"†¦like little chellovecks made out of tin and with a spring inside and then a winding handle on the outside† (Burgess, 203). There comes a point in a man’s life where he stops being a machine and becomes something else entirely. In the book A Clockwork Orange by Anthony Burgess, the twenty-first chapter was excluded from the earlier publications, but then added to the latter ones; although the ending of chapter twenty provides beneficial lessons, the twenty-first chapter of A Clockwork Orange is a superior conclusion to the story as it shows character development and accomplishes the morals of the story. This story follows a fifteen-year-old boy named Alex, an immature adolescent who disregards the law and engages in rape and â€Å"ultraviolence†. Soon Alex is apprehended and sentenced to prison where he is a victim of a conditioning experiment known as the â€Å"Ludovico treatment† in order to rid him of all of his evil desires. The treatment ends up being a success as Alex is no longer able to participate in violence or rape at his own will. As the story continues, the government cures Alex of the condition under the agreement that he sides with the government. At the end of chapter twenty, Alex departs from the audience realizing â€Å"I was cured all right† (Burgess 192). Although the end of this chapter is not nearly as satisfying and powerful as the ending of chapter twenty-one, it still provides an important lesson that readers should recognize. We as readers learn about the inherent evil of the government as we watch the Ludovico treatment’s success in controlling Alex’s violence. There is importance in informing readers of immoral actions involving the government and challenging them to question what is ethical or not. â€Å"He [Burgess] has presented us with a stark image of evil, and perhaps of a greater evil in attempting to counteract it. He has warned us of a slippery slope† (Newman 68). In the book, the Ludovico experiment is intense  and disturbing even for readers who have been exposed to Alex’s extreme actions. Even though Alex is presented to us as a clear image of evil, Burgess’s readers can still recognize something that is not just immature. Burgess is successful in showing his readers that sometimes something that is supposed to be pristine can be corrupt. He shows us that a government that has the appearance of being good does not mean that it is good. Though this ending is powerful, it does not completely satisfy or give any development to its readers. â€Å"Burgess offers us no real answers, however. At the end of the 20th chapter, it is clear that Alex intends to resume his life of ultraviolence. Seemingly little thought is given to those he has killed, or those he is likely to kill† (Newman 68). The ending of chapter twenty shows its readers that Alex is aware that he is in fact cured and will continue to act the same as he once did at the introduction of the story. Earlier in the story, Alex kills two women before being sentenced to prison. Since these deaths were very brutal, readers expect remorse from Alex especially when he is unconditioned from the reclamation treatment. Because Alex is released from the torture of the Ludovico technique, we predict he will regret the actions that caused the torment. When Alex does not show any actions towards his past transgressions, we envision him to kill again. As a result, this conclusion gives the readers no sort of progress throughout the events before. Since Alex was forced into changing his immoral actions, he never made any improvement in his own power. Even though readers can recognize that the treatment is immoral, they can still see that Alex is not making any progress. He was forced into a direction to be a test subject of something that had the appearance of being good. Although he is now three years older from when he was first sentenced, Alex ends where he once started, a child. In order for him to grow as a person, he first must realize that his actions are wrong. In the added twenty-first chapter, Alex encounters one of his old â€Å"droogs† and becomes aware of his transgressions and reanalyzes where his priorities are. As a result, the conclusion of the story surrounds Alex’s character and the maturity he begins to embrace. â€Å"But now as I end this story, brothers, I am not young, not no longer, oh no. Ale x like groweth up, oh yes† (Burgess 204). As Alex starts to distinguish his developing maturity, he finds himself evaluating  what adulthood requires. â€Å"In chapter 21, Burgess presents a mellowing, increasingly reflective, eighteen-year-old Alex who is coming to see that this previous violent behavior was childishly perverse. He thinks of marriage, stability, and the son he one day hopes to have. He contemplates explaining to his son all his past crimes as an admonition† (Hong 34). As Alex begins to become bored with the violence and rape he had previously committed, he reaches a place in his life where he has never been to before. Before the Ludovico treatment, Alex was a criminal and a child who needed to be cured from the sickness that grew within him. Even though Alex rejoices saying he was â€Å"cured,† he was not cured from his real problem; his evil ways. In order for him to be truly cured of his old desires, he needs to choose for himself to turn from what he once was. Through his experience with the Ludovico technique, Alex reaches the realization that part of growing up is turning from what has prevented his progression. â€Å"Free to will and free to choose again, even if he wills to sin, Alex is capable of salvation. In the view of Burgess, all individuals, even these as violent as Alex, could reform and acquire the moral growth. The moral maturity comes with age† (Hong 34). Though Alex did not show any signs of remorse or regret, he showed the desire to improve to a higher level of maturity. Something that he was unable to do at the end of chapter twenty, Alex is no longer immune to salvation. Regardless of the intensity and degree of the crimes Alex has committed, he has a chance to repent and break free from what has been chaining him down his whole life. This provides improvement in Burgess’s main character, as Alex can finally choose for himself what he must accomplish in order to mature as a man. Character development is clearly necessary for Burgess as he expresses, â€Å"There is, in fact not much point in writing a novel unless you can show the possibility or moral transformation, or an increase in wisdom, operating in your chief character or characters† (Burgess 168). Through the ending of chapter twenty-one, Alex displays progression in his character. If the novel ends at chapter twenty, Alex is right where he began. Once Alex has decided to choose goodness and maturity, the story finally reaches what the readers have been striving to see. As Alex finally looks to turn to the next chapter in his life, the book comes to a point where hope  is finally achieved. â€Å"When man has reached a hopeless impasse in his savage quest for improvement, he must make the sensible moral choice. The individual is a ‘creature of growth and capable of sweetness’, as F. Alexander puts in his typescript, so he could be liberated or saved† (Hong 34). Liberation comes from someone who chooses to become saved from the thing that once was holding that person down. As he made this choice he matured as a character. If Alex were to not make this choice, the main theme would not be as impactful since he did not choose goodness. Alex once displayed his view on goodness in the novel stating, â€Å"They don’t go into what is the cause of goodness, so why of the other shop? If lewdies are good that ’s because they like it, and I wouldn’t interfere with their pleasures, and so of the other shop. And I was patronizing the other shop† (Burgess 46). Alex shows us evil, just like goodness, is a choice when he refers it as â€Å"the other shop.† Again later in prison, the chaplain tells Alex, â€Å"goodness comes from within. Goodness is something chosen† (Burgess 93). This statement has no meaning to Alex unless he himself chooses goodness. Although Alex chose the Ludovico treatment, he did not choose goodness. The conditioning forced Alex into goodness rather than him choosing it for himself. The chaplain then goes on further to say, â€Å"when a man cannot choose he ceases to be a man† (Burgess 93). Burgess desires to indicate that it is not what a man chooses; it is the idea that he is able to choose. A man who is incapable of a moral choice can never attain redemption, but a man who admits his wrongdoings can choose to repent and reach salvation. Throughout the story, free will is displayed as the decision to choose something rather than being another subject or machine of the government. Although Alex ultimately seems as if he will begin to choose goodness, Burgess wants to make sure that goodness is something that must be chosen, rather than forced. In A Clockwork Orange Resucked, Burgess shows his readers that good and evil must both be equally offered. â€Å"†¦ by definition, a human being is endowed with free will. He can use this to choose between good and evil. If he can only perform evil, then he is a clockwork orange – meaning that he has the appearance of an organism lovely with colour and juice but is in fact only a clockwork toy to be wound up by God or the Devil† (â€Å"ACO Resucked† 168). As Alex was once a toy wound up by the  appearance of pure goodness, readers soon find that evil was what turned the lever. At the beginning of the story, it appears that Alex is already â€Å"a clo ckwork orange† as he seems as though he can only perform evil acts with his henchman. As the end draws near, we find that Alex always had the choice of goodness, but never chose it until he had nothing but the choice of goodness. Burgess again expresses, â€Å"It is inhuman to be totally good as it is to be totally evil. The important thing is moral choice. Evil has to exist along with good, in order that moral choice may operate. Life is sustained by the grinding opposition of moral entities† (â€Å"ACO Resucked†168). Without evil as a valid choice, the choice to be good becomes nothing more than an empty action. In the novel, Alex too refers to himself as one of those â€Å"malenky machines† at the end of chapter twenty-one, saying being young is like being one of those machines. He goes on and says that they cannot control where they are going and crash into things along the way. Alex comes to the realization that he does not want to be a toy anymore. Without the twenty-first chapter, Alex would still be a clockwork orange, leaving him as just another machine. Not only does the twenty-first chapter accomplish the morals of both maturity and goodness, it also resonates for readers as a symbolism for free will. The twenty-first chapter is necessary for Alex’s character development as well, and achieves greater emotional value for its readers. According to Burgess, the choice of either goodness or evil is something that everyone should be entitled to. Regardless of what someone chooses, goodness or evil should be chosen in order to remain a human. For a human who does not have a choice, â€Å"grrr grrr grrr and off it itties, like walking, O my brothers† (Burgess 203). Works Cited Burgess, Anthony. A Clockwork Orange. Ed. Andrew Biswell. Res. ed. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2012. Print. Burgess, Anthony. â€Å"A Clockwork Orange Resucked.† A Clockwork Orange – Authoritative Text Backgrounds And Contexts Criticism. Ed. Mark Rawlinson. Norton Critical. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011. 166-70. Print. Hong, Liu. â€Å"The Perplexing Choice In Existence Predicament: An Existential Interpretation Of Burgess’s A Clockwork Orange.† Studies In Literature & Language 1.8 (2010): 29-38. Communication & Mass Media Complete. Web. 7 Dec. 2013. Newman, Bobby. â€Å"A CLOCKWORK ORANGE: Burgess and Behavioral Interventions.† Behavior and Social Issues 1.2 (1991): 61-69. Web. 13 Dec. 2013.

Wednesday, October 23, 2019

Aspects of love †Romeo and Juliet Essay

Now Juliet’s father has a leading role in Juliet’s â€Å"love life†. In Verona the people were catholic and it was to have arranged marriages. With Juliet as a young teenager, Capulet thought she might have been too young to get married; Capulet- â€Å"My child is yet a stranger in the world; She hath not seen the change of fourteen years, Let two more summers wither in their pride, Ere we may think her ripe to be a bride. † He was telling this to Paris. He was close to the Capulets and he seemed to impress Lady Capulet more then he did Juliet. In the story, Capulet had a few children, with Juliet as the youngest, but all part from Juliet had died through child hood. Death was very common in Elizabethan times, with the plague about and not very good medication, at least 1 in three children would most probably die through their child hood. With Juliet being his only child left, he would have liked her to have a happy life with a decent man and a decent living. He chose Paris to be more then suitable, Capulet-â€Å"And too soon marr’d are those so early made. The earth hath swallow’d all my hopes but she, She is the hopeful lady of my earth: But woo her, gentle Paris, get her heart† But maybe he didn’t want to let her go just as yet. Capulets had a reputation to live up to, and the father wanted to keep it that way. Lady Capulet wasn’t really much of a motherly figure in the story to Juliet. She never seemed to talk to her much, and when she did they were more like commands. Juliet must have been use to this as she would address her politely; Juliet- â€Å"Madam, I am here. What is your will? † Was their any family love such as the hugs, stories and giving motherly advice between Lady Capulet and Juliet? From what it seems Lady Capulet, being the Lady of the house hold is more being busy around else where rather then ever being with her daughter. The nurse played a bigger part in Juliet’s life. She gave advice, and wanted Juliet to be happy, she was not into the ‘keeping the Capulets dignity’, she didn’t seem to be the kind of person to judge but she only told Juliet what she thought would be best for her. They talk of Juliet getting married, but Lady Capulet only asks if she would and not how she feels about the whole situation, alike Lord Capulet she is soon is suggesting of her marrying Paris. Lady Capulet- â€Å"Marry, that ‘marry’ is the very theme I came to talk of. Tell me, daughter Juliet, How stands your disposition to be married? † Juliet- â€Å"It is an honour that I dream not of. † In a respectful way, Juliet has already sorted her way of getting married. She is telling her mother that although she’s honoured to be in such a position in which her family would be proud of, it’s not her ideal way of living with someone for the rest of her life. Maybe she knew what she was looking for in love, that’s if she was looking for love at that time. Paris says he loves Juliet, and wants to marry her. But from what we see, he hardly knows Juliet, not like Romeo. They don’t have the chemistry. Juliet is charmed, and he is very gentlemen like. But what is love to Paris. Paris-This is that banish’d haughty Montague, That murder’d my love’s cousin, with which grief†¦ To Paris, he wants to marry a girl who will have his children and look good, so to speak. Like the Capulets or Montague way of raising a family, not through caring love but through pride and dignity. Paris- â€Å"younger than she are happy mothers made. † Through Juliets aspect of love, before she even meet Romeo, we see that there was no other interest in men, not even when Lady Capulet asked her what she though about marrying Paris. She just replied that she is something she would not dream of. When she met Romeo she instantly clicked with him. She was impressed by the way he spoke to her, and the words he used. No one had probably talked to her in such a way before. Romeo- Romeo’s mother and father aren’t really mentioned much in the play. Lord Capulet says he is confused about his son, that he is withdrawn and he doesn’t really know him. Although he see’s him withdrawn to himself he wants him to â€Å"dedicate his beauty to the sun†, share his thoughts. Lady Capulet seem to care about Romeo as much, Lady Capulet- â€Å"O where is Romeo? Saw you him today? Right glad I am he was not at this fray. † It looks as though his parents are concerned about him very much, they look out for their son, try to know where he is, as they know he is a sensitive and gentle person. It’s very common for parent to be protective over their children in a family. Within the Montague’s, their family is based around such care of each other, and not so much about dignity, even though he was brought up to think about the families pride and dignity. Romeo and his Cousin Benvolio hang about together; he is out most of the time with him and his best friend Mercutio. He talks to both of them about love, with Juliet and with Rosaline. Now with Rosaline, Romeo thought he was in love when in fact he was just infatuated by her class, beauty and plain hard to get. He soon gets over her when he meets Juliet. Romeo and Juliet both fell for each other at the party at the Capulets house party. The first time they spoke, they both talked with holy language, and Juliet (who was quite a religious person) was taken by his flattering words, the first time they spoke. Romeo- â€Å"If I profane with my unworthiest hand This holy shrine, the gentle sin is this, my lips, two blushing pilgrims, ready stand to smooth that rough touch with a tender kiss. † Juliet- â€Å"Good pilgrim, you do wrong your hand too much, which mannerly devotion shows in this, for saints have hands that pilgrims’ hands do touch, and palm to palm is holy palmers’ kiss. † They only speak like this to each other, Juliet who has never been spoken to like this before is fascinated. By him by the end of the night, she does not want to leave him and he does not want to leave her. She warns him of the dangers he would be in if he got caught but he still risks all that just to see her that one night. At this point their views of love for each other begin. This is where they want to get to know each other, as they have never meet anyone like each other before. They probably felt that no-one has ever understood them before as they did in this one night. Juliet starts to believe in love, and Romeo finds that Rosaline was not true love after all, and these guys wouldn’t want to loose contact after this night. Friar Lawrence finds that these too are meant to be. Being a Friar, it does not refer to him believing in arranged marriages. But he thought that bringing Romeo and Juliet together would solve and bury the conflict between the too rival families, Montagues and Capulets. That they would find to love each other through Romeo and Juliets love for each other. He knew that Romeo and Juliet loved each other deeply so he risked this to solve the family feud as he believed that they wouldn’t part because of there families, because they had stayed together this far.

Tuesday, October 22, 2019

Gibbs Nursing Model on Reflection The WritePass Journal

Gibbs Nursing Model on Reflection Introduction Gibbs Nursing Model on Reflection ). The Gibbs (1988) model of reflection suggests that the process of reflection is systematic and follows a number of specific steps in order to be successful. This model of reflection is a type of formal reflection, which draws on research and puts forward a theory as to how most effectively put into practice to process of reflection. The process can be broken down into six key steps: Description: this step explores the context of the event and covers fine details such as who was present at the event, where it happened and what happened. Feelings: this step encourages the reflector to explore their thoughts and feelings at the time of the event. Evaluation: this step encourages the nurse to make their own judgement about the event and to consider what went well and what went less well about the event. Analysis: this step delves even deeper into reflection on the event and encourages the nurse to break the event down into smaller episodes in order to facilitate analysis. Conclusions: this step explores the potential alternatives that may be used to deal with the situation that is being reflected upon. Action Plan: this is the final step in the reflection process. The action plan is put into place in order to deal more effectively with the situation if or when it may arise again. The Royal College of Nursing (2012) believes the Gibbs (1988) model of reflection to be particularly superior because emphasises the role of emotions and acknowledges their importance in the reflection process. Nursing can often be an emotionally charged career, especially for nurses working in areas such as psychiatric health and palliative care. Therefore, reflection on these emotions and exploration of how to manage them and improve management of them in the future is of particular importance in the nursing profession. Case Study Step One (Description) A young male patient aged 16 years came into the clinic around three days ago. He complained of low self-esteem and is feeling fed up and depressed because of pimples and spots on his face. The patient was worried that   Ã‚  girls would not be attracted to him because of the spots. The consultation took place with just myself present, no other nurses were in the room at the time of the appointment. The consultation lasted around half an hour, during which time myself and the patient discussed the history of his problems with his skin and the emotional distress that the spots were causing him. The patient disclosed that he had begun to get spots at around age 14 when he had started puberty and that it had begun to make him feel extremely self-conscious. The patient described the negative effect that the acne was having. For example, he has been bullied at school and is feeling apprehensive about starting sixth form in September because he believes that he will be the only sixth form er with spots. Based on the reasonably lengthy history of the acne, the presence of acne on the face and the negative emotional effect that the acne was having, a three month dosage of oxytetracycline was prescribed for the patient. Step Two (Feelings) During the consultation I had a number of feelings. Primarily I felt sympathy for the client because his situation reminded me of my own time as a teenager. I suffered from bad skin from the ages of 14 to about 20 and it severely affected my own self-esteem. In a review of the literature, Dunn, O’Neill and Feldman (2011) have found that patients suffering from acne are more at risk of depression and other psychological disorders. However, the review also found that acne treatment may lead to improvement of the psychological disorder that are so often co-morbid. This made me feel re-assured that prescribing oxytetracycline had been the right thing to do. My own experiences of acne also meant that I was able to relate well to the patient. I also felt some anger during the consultation. This anger was directed at the patient’s peers who had been cruel enough to taunt and tease the patient because of his acne. I also felt regret and guilt. I regretted not referring the pati ent onwards for emotional support and for not exploring the psychological impact of the acne in more detail. I also felt a sense of pride that this young man had the courage to come to the clinic by himself to seek help for his acne. I remembered how upsetting acne was as a teenager and I remembered that I would have been too embarrassed to have ever gone to a clinic or to have sought help from an adult. In turn, I also felt happiness. I felt happy that this young man had come to the clinic and I felt happy that I was able to help him. Step Three (Evaluation) On evaluation, the event was good in a number of ways. Firstly it added to my experience of dealing with young people and in dealing with the problems that are unique to this population of patients. I have not had many young patients during my nursing career and I welcome the opportunity to gain experience with this group. Furthermore, it re-affirmed my career choice as a nurse. During your career you always have doubts as to whether you have chosen the correct path. However, there are points in your career when you feel sure that you have made the right choice. However, there were also some negative elements. Firstly, the appointment was quite short and I am worried that this may have made the patient feel rushed and uncomfortable. After the consultation I did some research into the effects of acne in young people. Purvis et al. (2006) have found that young people with acne are at an increased risk of suicide and that attention must be paid to their mental health. In particular, the authors found that directly asking about suicidal thoughts should be encouraged during consultations with young people. This information only served to make me feel more anxious and I wished that I had bought this up with the patient. Step Four (Analysis) On reflection, being able to relate to the patient increased my ability to deal more effectively with the situation. I feel that the patient was able to open up more to me because he sensed my sympathy for him and his situation. Randall and Hill (2012) interviewed children aged between 11 and 14 years about what makes a ‘good’ nurse. It was found that the ability to connect to them was extremely important and so I think this is why the patient felt comfortable opening up to me. On reflection, I am also now convinced that the patient coming to see me was a very positive event. The patient could have chosen to go on suffering and could have chosen not to open up and talk about the problems his acne was causing. In a review of the literature, Gulliver, Griffiths and Christensen (2010) found that young people perceived embarrassment and stigma as barriers to accessing healthcare. Therefore, it could have been very easy for the patient to have avoided coming and seeking help. I felt a range of both positive and negative emotions during the consultation, and I think this re-affirmed for me that I enjoy nursing and enjoy helping others. It is important to genuinely care about patients and to provide them with the best care possible. This would be hard to do if you did not feel empathy for patients. The experience also helped me realise that I need to actively search out training and learning opportunities regarding working with young people with mental health issues. Step Five (Conclusion) If the same situation was to arise again I think that I would approach it in a slightly different way. In particular, I would have offered to refer the patient to further support services. During the consultation the patient mentioned that he felt that the spots on his face made him unattractive to the opposite sex. In addition to providing medication to get to the biological and physiological roots of the problem, on reflection I think it would have been beneficial to the patient to have provided information about charities that offer self-esteem and confidence building. Such charities that offer these services include Young Minds (youngminds.org.uk/) and Mind (mind.org.uk/). In retrospect, I also believe that I should have given the patient a longer consultation time in order for us to have explored the psychological impact of his acne in more detail. Coyne (2008) has found that young people are rarely involved in the decision-making process when it comes to their consultations. Th erefore, giving the patient more time to discuss his problems may have improved his sense of wellbeing as he felt more involved in his care process. Step Six (Action Plan) There are a number of elements to my action plan. Firstly, I will make sure that in the future the consultation room has leaflets and information pertaining to mental health problems in young people. This way, young people can access the information if they perhaps feel too embarrassed to talk about it. Hayter (2005) has found that young people accessing health clinics put a high value on a non-judgemental approach by health staff. Therefore, in future I would be sure to be aware of my attitude and make sure that either subconsciously or consciously; I am not making any judgements about the patient. Hayter (2005) also found that young people had serious concerns regarding confidentiality, especially during busy times at the clinic. Therefore, in the future I would be certain to reassure young people that their details and consultations are kept completely confidential. To re-assure young patients, I may ask them to sign a confidentiality form, which I will also sign in front of them. Furthermore, my action plan will include improving my knowledge and awareness of working with young people as a nursing professional. This will allow me to increase the tools and skills I have for dealing with young people with complex needs. During the consultation I felt anger toward the patient’s peers who had teased him. In the future, I will focus on being more objective when dealing with a patient who has been the victim of bullying. References Coyne, I. (2008) Children’s participation in consultations and decision-making at health service level: A review of the literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 45(11), pp. 1682-1689. Dunn, L.K., O’Neill, J.L. and Feldman, S.R. (2011) Acne in adolescents: Quality of life, self-esteem, mood and psychological disorders. Dermatology Online Journal, 17(1). Available at: http://escholarship.org/uc/item/4hp8n68p [Accessed 20 October 2013]. Gibbs, G. (1988) Learning by Doing: A guide to teaching and learning methods. Oxford: Further Education Unit. Gulliver, A., Griffiths, K.M. and Christensen, H. (2010) Perceived barriers and facilitators to mental health help-seeking in young people: a systematic review. BMC Psychiatry, 10(1), pp. 113. Hayter, M. (2005) Reaching marginalised young people through sexual health nursing outreach clinics: Evaluating service use and the views of service users. Public Health Nursing, 22(4), pp. 339-346. Paget, T. (2001) Reflective practice and clinical outcomes: practitioner’s views on how reflective practice has influenced their clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 10(2), pp. 204-214. Purvis, D., Robinson, E., Merry, S. and Watson, P. (2006) Acne, anxiety, depression and suicide in teenagers: A cross-sectional survey of New Zealand secondary school. Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health, 42(12), pp. 793-796. Randall, D. and Hill, A. (2012) Consulting children and young people on what makes a good nurse. Nursing Children and Young People, 24(3), pp. 14. Royal College of Nursing (2012) An exploration of the challenges of maintaining basic human rights in practice. London: Royal College of Nursing.

Monday, October 21, 2019

Are sweatshops good or bad essayEssay Writing Service

Are sweatshops good or bad essayEssay Writing Service Are sweatshops good or bad? essay Are sweatshops good or bad? essayThe term sweatshop denotes a factory which violates labor laws and human rights by forcing workers to have low wages, to work in poor conditions and/or long hours. There are many sweatshops worldwide, and many SP 500 companies rely on sweatshops to make profits. The major reasons why companies organize sweatshops are low labor costs and poor protection of workers rights in the developing countries. The purpose of this paper is to discuss whether sweatshops are good or bad. The major thesis of the paper is the following; sweatshops are bad, and it should be the goal of all human beings to combine efforts to eliminate sweatshops and similar business practices.There are numerous negative issues associated with sweatshops. People have to work and live in poor conditions in such factories; many of them receive low wages which are only enough to provide for some food or shelter or medicine. Workers of top earning corporations might have to choose between bu ying a medicine, buying a breakfast, buying basic clothes, etc.Children of those parents who work in sweatshops grow mostly on their own; they are not able to get an education and eventually the children of these parents will form another generation of sweatshop workers. In many developing countries, children above 5 years are also forced to work.Large corporations often use unethical and even cruel practices in developing countries to force their workers to work in such poor conditions. There are armed guards in sweatshops, and the top management in developing countries might collaborate with local mafia to gain control of the workforce. When external people attempt to visit sweatshops, guards do not allow workers to speak with the visitors at the threat of penalties, firing or even physical punishment.This vicious cycle of poverty and exploitation should be stopped. Furthermore, it can be stopped: according to surveys of public opinion, consumers might be willing to pay 15% more f or products that do not come from sweatshops, and doubling the pay of workers in such factories would only cause an increase of cost by 1.8% on average (Do Something, n.d.). The profits of large companies might slightly reduce due to eliminating sweatshops, but at the same time providing at least for basic human needs might increase the performance of sweatshop workers, drive motivation and stimulate the growth of developing economies.The supporters of sweatshops have several arguments warranting the existence of sweatshops. For instance, Kristof (2009) states that in some regions working in a sweatshop is considered a blessing for those people who do not have a job and have to dig garbage to find some plastic elements for recycling. Furthermore, Kristof (2009) indicates that the standards of living in the regions with sweatshops soared. However, these arguments only show that the presence of factories in developing countries is beneficial for economic development.None of the argume nts set by Kristof actually justifies the practices common for sweatshops: extremely low wages, poor living conditions, excess working hours (which are directly related to very low wages), etc. Furthermore, if manufacturing companies adopt some basic standards of payment and working conditions that allow their workers to maintain human dignity, both these companies and the economies of developing countries will be better off.Indeed, workers who have enough time to rest and enough resources to satisfy their basic needs are able to work more efficiently, can reduce the rate of errors and can be more enthusiastic in their work. Furthermore, higher wages will cause the inflow of additional finance into developing countries; these cash flows will likely stimulate the further increase of living standards in the community. The only threat that comes from adopting such practices is international competition from countries with no laws protecting their workers. However, if basic labor standa rds and wages were adopted at the international level, there would be no such threat to the developing countries which dare protect the rights of their citizens. Therefore, the arguments set by the supporters of sweatshops are inconsistent and basically relate to the presence of manufacturing companies and not to the practices adopted by sweatshops. Sweatshops have negative consequences for the developing countries and should be eliminated at the international level.

Sunday, October 20, 2019

The Assassination of Shaka Zulu (September 24, 1828)

The Assassination of Shaka Zulu (September 24, 1828) Shaka kaSenzangakhona, Zulu king and founder of the Zulu empire, was murdered by his two half-brothers Dingane and Mhlangana at kwaDukuza in 1828- one date given is September 24. Dingane assumed the throne after the assassination. Shakas Last Words Shakas last words have taken on a prophetic mantle- and popular South African/Zulu myth has him telling Dingane and Mhlangana that it is not they who will rule the Zulu nation but white people who will come up from the sea. Another version says swallows will be the ones to rule, which is a reference to white people because they build houses of mud as do swallows.​ However, the version which is probably the truest rendition comes from Mkebeni kaDabulamanzi, King Cetshwayos nephew and grandson of King Mpande (another half-brother to Shaka)- Are you stabbing me, kings of the earth? You will come to an end through killing one another. Shaka and the Zulu Nation Assassination by rivals to the throne is a constant in monarchies throughout history and around the world. Shaka was an illegitimate son of a minor chief, Senzangakhona, while his half-brother  Dingane was legitimate. Shakas mother Nandi eventually was installed as the third wife of this chief, but it was an unhappy relationship, and she and her son were eventually driven away. Shaka joined the military of the Mthethwa, led by chief Dingiswayo. After Shakas father died in 1816, Dingiswayo supported Shaka in assassinating his elder brother, Sigujuana, who had assumed the throne. Now Shaka was the chief of the Zulu, but a vassal of Dingiswayo. When Dingiswayo was killed by Zwide, Shaka assumed leadership of the Mthethwa state and army. Shakas power grew as he reorganized the Zulu military system. The long-bladed assegai and the bullhorn formation were innovations that led to greater success on the battlefield. He had ruthless military discipline and incorporated both men and youths in his armies. He forbade his troops to marry. He conquered neighboring territories or created alliances until he controlled all of present-day Natal. In doing so, many rivals were forced out of their territories and migrated, causing disruption throughout the region. However, he was not in conflict with the Europeans in the area. He allowed some European settlers in the Zulu kingdom. Why Was Shaka Assassinated? When Shakas mother, Nandi, died in October 1827, his grief led to erratic and deadly behavior. He required everyone else to grieve with him and executed anyone he decided was not grieving sufficiently, as many as 7,000 people. He ordered that no crops be planted and no milk could be used, two orders sure to induce famine. Any pregnant woman would be executed, as would her husband. Shakas two half-brothers tried more than once to assassinate him. Their successful attempt came when most of the Zulu troops had been sent north and security was lax at the royal kraal. The brothers were joined by a servant, Mbopa. Accounts vary as to whether the servant did the actual killing or it was done by the brothers. They dumped his body in an empty grain pit and filled the pit, so the exact location is unknown. Dingane assumed the throne and purged loyalists to Shaka. He allowed the troops to marry and set up a homestead, which built loyalty with the military. He ruled for 12 years until he was defeated by his half-brother Mpande.

Saturday, October 19, 2019

Human Experiments - Inform consent Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Human Experiments - Inform consent - Essay Example Medical research is usually carried out on animals, however, many researchers and practitioners do not find these methods of experimentation as accurate and as reliable as research conducted on humans. Hence, human experimentation is becoming a very popular mode of medical research for many practitioners and researchers. Human experimentation was first used in the nineteenth century where there was an increased demand for human experimentation in the areas of bacteriology, immunology and physiology. These researches were usually done without the knowledge and consent of the patients. When injury resulted for some of the patient-subjects, the public and the medical community was outraged. Questions were subsequently raised abut the suitability of these experiments. The first restrictions on human experimentation were issued by the Prussian minister for religious, educational, and medical affairs. These regulations became imperative because of the actions of Albert Neisser—professor of dermatology and venerealogy at the University of Breslau. In order to establish preventive means for syphilis, he injected prostitutes who were admitted to the hospital (for different medical reasons) with cell free serum from patients with syphilis. These prostitutes were not informed about the experiment that w ould be undertaken on them. When the patients were infected with syphilis, Neisser concluded that the vaccination and treatment he administered did not work. He was later fined and reprimanded by the Royal Disciplinary Court for his unethical actions. The court said that although his tests may have been harmless to the patients, he should have sought their consent before administering the serum to them. As a result of the Neisser case, a directive was issued to all hospitals and clinics advising that all medical interventions which were not related to diagnosis, healing and immunization should not be performed on minors and on

ExxonMobil and Rosneft Arctic Collaboration Essay

ExxonMobil and Rosneft Arctic Collaboration - Essay Example The entire project is at risk from a large number of factors that span the financial, compliance, strategic and operational domains. The project is set to create an open framework that allows information and expertise sharing along with data availability and accessibility. Another aim is to augment oil reserves and to ensure oil supply as per global demand. Similarly the project looks to develop world class expertise and to come to an agreement that is beneficial and protective throughout the life of the project. Another underlying aim for Exxon is to become a leading oil giant. A large challenge is to achieve cooperation across the table and to deal with a state controlled country. This may give rise to legal issues and the US Congress may be reluctant to support such an initiative. Environmental groups would also oppose efforts for exploration and the icy environment would be a large challenge to work with as well as problems in oil spills, waste disposal and oil transportation. Th e project would proceed as semi-sub drilling with daily costs of $700,000 producing some 160,000 barrels per day. A joint venture framework would be used as the political and economic climate of the US Russia relationship is precarious over the longer run. The largest risk anticipated by the project is price volatility in the international market given that the project stretches some two decades. The collaboration between Exxon Mobil and Rosneft Arctic Corporation is a very positive step in order to promote collaboration between the US and Russia. Moreover such collaboration can provide much required relief to the international energy markets as more oil is discovered and exploited. The Russian side has the territorial space and the jurisdiction while the American side has the capability to provide the technical expertise that is much required to carry out this project. The largest technical challenge will stem from the function of the TLP’s tendons under the

Friday, October 18, 2019

There are 3 parts in this assessment and i decided to write about Essay

There are 3 parts in this assessment and i decided to write about topshop this brand. The titles are in the assessment brief and pleas use them as the title for each part of the assessment - Essay Example While some retailers in the competitive environment have lead times in the weeks or even months, Zara has managed to be able to procure their products and have them manufactured and delivered within 15 days when demand requires it. This is unprecedented on this competitive environment, giving Zara much competitive advantage in areas of supply chain, manufacturing, and stock replenishment. In terms of the supply chain, Zara is consistently benchmarked for their efficient supply chain process as no other retailer across the globe has been able to achieve a more workable supply chain which can promise merchandise to be delivered twice daily with new fashions and new stock. The macro environment, in relation to supply chain, supports the ability for Zara to produce fast fashion merchandise and still maintain control over how the business is able to develop new merchandise fashions. There is a well-developed business infrastructure in terms of distribution and the availability of manufacturers of various textiles and fabrics to give Zara a considerable amount of diversity in product line and fashion variety. Zara also maintains ownership of many of these elements of the supply chain, giving them the ability to coordinate activities related to replenishment and distribution at the internal level. While other competitors have to rely on the expertise and timely delivery of supplier services, Zara can ensure these activities are efficient and is not affected as much by breakdowns within the supply chain caused by external inefficiencies. The macro environment is also putting pressure on retailers to adopt new payment systems, since many clothing retailers, including Zara, offer their products online. More convenient and efficient online payment systems are required in order to get consumers interested in making purchases. Therefore, Zara has developed a partnership with PayPal, the international company which provides a multitude of

Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Business Management - Essay Example To keep pace with the demands, the operations team should on a high gear to develop better products or services that are more customers oriented (Lang, 2013). Secondly, the mode of relaying information to the customer is very important. Information technology has grown to enable organizations to meet individual needs of customers. In order to remain competitive and retain the customers, use of information technologies is inevitable due to the accompanying efficiency (Lang, 2013). Thirdly, customer care is very important; all issues raised by the customer should be keenly addressed. The care centers should go a notch higher in providing customized customer services. In doing so, the customer feels appreciated hence increasing their loyalty. Another important point is that the organizations should be swift to respond to customer’s opinions and trends (Slywotzky, 2007). Fourthly, the organization should have a database of its customers and keep on tracking any changes in buying trends. If a customer’s trend exhibits a negative change, an appropriate action should be taken by doing follow up geared towards understanding the cause (Slywotzky, 2007). Some companies have been successful in ensuring that customers remain loyal as well as appreciate their products. One of these companies is Coach Inc, a company that makes handbags and other fashion accessories. Coach Inc has utilized diverse ways of identifying the customer needs. It uses over $5 million in the process of testing new products, which includes several methods of reaching to the customers such as surveys, one-one interviews, as well as in-store testing. The company has a database of its customers; this has continued to grow due to the responsiveness and sensitivity to customer needs. The company endeavors to have all the customer dynamics taken care of. Aspects such as positive buying intent, lapsed customers, competitive rating, customer

Thursday, October 17, 2019

The microsoft case Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The microsoft case - Assignment Example onopolizing, attempts for monopolization, conspiring or combining with other people with the motive to monopolize part of a  trade  among several States. However, Microsoft was aiming at gaining the monopoly power in the PC market (Economides, 2001). Yes,  I do agree that Microsoft was trying to gain monopoly power in the computer software industry.  Microsoft  mismanaged the opportunity of being the leading market holder in the computer industry, which led to antitrust behavior investigations. The Company had managed to  attain  95% market share through antitrust behaviors (Brinkley & Lohr, 2000). The reports led to the  investigation  for determining whether Microsoft is aiming at establishing a monopoly in the market of the computer software. There have been numerous facts proving that Microsoft was making  efforts  monopolize  the  industry  of software. The creation of Microsoft Office as a package that comprises of packages that are  entirely  assisting the  professional  was a deliberate move to monopolize the market. Microsoft  was also sued  due to developing an operating system that had Windows Media Player; thus, engaging the real media player in unfair competition (Brinkley & Lohr, 2000). In Monopoly markets, Companies have market  power in given segments that  involve  the  production  of commodities. The Monopolies are also the price makers of the products produced. In the case where Government Monopoly  is involved, the government controls accessibility to production. The Government monopoly relates to a monopoly of government cooperation or an agency. However, there are Pros and cons to the natural monopoly. The natural monopoly results due to businesses that require a high start up costs in order to operate in a given business. To the company, monopoly ensures that unnecessary competition is avoided; this results to increased marginal revenue and  strong brand name (Tucker, 2010). Monopoly ensures that an organization enjoys economies of scale

Business Placement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Business Placement - Essay Example For the purpose of this assignment, the fields selected are energy, FMCG and Information Technology. The reason for selecting FMCG and energy is their extensive nature and opportunities of having employments on global scale. There are many companies in these sectors that are operating on global scale e.g. Nestle, Unilever, P&G, 3M, Philip Moris, British American Tobacco, Colgate-Palmolive, Kellog etc. On the other hand, companies operating in these industries at small and medium level are also using e-commerce and other techniques to expand their operations beyond borders through imports and exports. If American industry is explored alone, the market is quite extensive and there is still a room for new entrants to exploit opportunities offered by this industry. My third choice would be IT sector. The reason for selecting IT industry is its robust and highly creative nature. Everyday new applications and products are coming into market and there is a never-ending need for innovative p roducts and services. In order to understand dynamics of each industry, it is important to explore how they operate individually, what kind of career prospects and remuneration they offer along with skills required by each of them. For this purpose, an extensive industry analysis is performed with reference to FMCG, energy and IT sector in United States. This analysis will further help in analyzing career opportunities available in respective fields of employment. The research regarding best employers was performed with the help of various online sources and periodicals such as business insiders, Forbes, CNN Money. With the help of this research, it was found that Google Inc was one of the best employers which not only provided better and growing career prospects but also a suitable working environment as well. Since work environment is one of the most important factor affecting employees’ satisfaction and their retention with their employers, therefore Google Inc would be my future prospective employer from IT sector (CNN Money, 2013). Another top employer is 3M from FMCG sector. Lastly, Devon Energy company would be a preferred employer from energy sector. 2.0 Energy Sector in United States The United States is named as the market leader when it comes to global energy sector. Similarly, with increase in commercial and domestic consumers, it is also the biggest user of energy resources. The industry itself has various kinds of sub-fields such as renewable energy and fuel, oil and gas, coal and nuclear energy, industrial energy efficiency, smart grid etc. The energy sector of United States alone contributes $ 6billion in global energy market (SelectUSA-Energy, 2013). The employers in this field mainly perform integrated process, exploration and production, refining, marketing, pipeline, marine businesses, and service and supply. According to American Petroleum Institute (2013), â€Å" The industry also supports 9.2 million U.S. jobs and 7.3 percent of the U.S. economy, delivers $86 million a day in revenue to our government, and, since 2000, has invested over $2 trillion in U.S. capital projects to advance all forms of energy, including alternatives.†

Wednesday, October 16, 2019

The microsoft case Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The microsoft case - Assignment Example onopolizing, attempts for monopolization, conspiring or combining with other people with the motive to monopolize part of a  trade  among several States. However, Microsoft was aiming at gaining the monopoly power in the PC market (Economides, 2001). Yes,  I do agree that Microsoft was trying to gain monopoly power in the computer software industry.  Microsoft  mismanaged the opportunity of being the leading market holder in the computer industry, which led to antitrust behavior investigations. The Company had managed to  attain  95% market share through antitrust behaviors (Brinkley & Lohr, 2000). The reports led to the  investigation  for determining whether Microsoft is aiming at establishing a monopoly in the market of the computer software. There have been numerous facts proving that Microsoft was making  efforts  monopolize  the  industry  of software. The creation of Microsoft Office as a package that comprises of packages that are  entirely  assisting the  professional  was a deliberate move to monopolize the market. Microsoft  was also sued  due to developing an operating system that had Windows Media Player; thus, engaging the real media player in unfair competition (Brinkley & Lohr, 2000). In Monopoly markets, Companies have market  power in given segments that  involve  the  production  of commodities. The Monopolies are also the price makers of the products produced. In the case where Government Monopoly  is involved, the government controls accessibility to production. The Government monopoly relates to a monopoly of government cooperation or an agency. However, there are Pros and cons to the natural monopoly. The natural monopoly results due to businesses that require a high start up costs in order to operate in a given business. To the company, monopoly ensures that unnecessary competition is avoided; this results to increased marginal revenue and  strong brand name (Tucker, 2010). Monopoly ensures that an organization enjoys economies of scale

Tuesday, October 15, 2019

How would the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act come in toplay in terms of Essay

How would the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act come in toplay in terms of Globalized Ethics - Essay Example ell as organizations residing within the US or in any other country from paying or accepting bribes from foreign nationals in return for governmental favors or in order to expedite a particular process. This provision also applies to foreign firms and nationals residing within the US and who are caught in the act of bribery. The act includes issuers whose securities are registered in the US even of the person or the organization is outside the US territory (Osajda, 2010; Glynn, Kobrin & Naim, n.d; Foreign Corrupt Practices Act). Thus the FCPA has a broad reach both within and outside the US and is striving to bring an end to corruption on the global front. The main focus of the act is the purpose for which the money is being transacted. While the act does not interfere with payments made for undertaking routine governmental duties, it imposes heavy fines on those who indulge in corruption (Foreign Corrupt Practices Act). In order to prohibit such illegal laundering of money in other world countries the US appealed to the Organization of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) to issue a recommendation on anti-bribery to its constituent countries. Though the move was initially opposed by the Germans, French and British, it has over the years gained support from these countries who have also adopted suitable measures to combat bribery within their countries. In addition adopting legislative measures to prohibit bribery the OECD has further taken several initiatives to urge countries around the word to pass laws on criminalization of bribery that would help them to achieve zero-tolerance against corruption (Glynn, Kobrin & Naim, n.d). 2. Glynn, P., Kobrin, S. J., & Moises Naim. (n.d). The Globalization of Corruption. Institute for International Economics, Publications. Retrieved Jan 8, 2013, from

Monday, October 14, 2019

A Historical Look at U.S. GAAP Essay Example for Free

A Historical Look at U.S. GAAP Essay ABSTRACT This paper discusses the historical development of generally accepted accounting principles through its contributing sources from 1930 to the present. U.S. Businesses had been using double entry accounting since the 1800s yet no uniform accounting practices had been introduced until the American Institute of Accountants (AIA) recommended to the New York Stock Exchange in 1932, †¦Ã¢â‚¬ five broad principles of accounting which have won fairly general acceptance†¦Ã¢â‚¬ , (Zeff, 2005, para. 4). In which, the terms â€Å"fairly present† and â€Å"in accordance with† were first used followed up with â€Å"generally accepted accounting principles†. Later, a sixth principle was approved. These recommendations were based on the three assumptions that all business transactions were apart from the business owner, all transaction currencies measured in the US dollar, the assumption of time and the matching principle. Thus establishing a foundation of which all future accounting principles are based. The AIA formed the Committee on Accounting Procedures (CAP) to publish Accounting Research Bulletins (ARB) on GAAP under the authority of the Security and Exchange Commission (SEC) created by the Securities Act of 1934. The CAP was later reorganized into the Accounting Principles Board (APB) that issued Opinions between 1959 and 1973. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) has been the source for private sector generally accepted accounting principles since 1973. Input by the private sector has been crucial to the development of GAAP since 1930. Historically, GAAP is influenced by the business condition and public interest. The Great Depression left the public with little faith in the private sector. Although the knowledge and experience of businesses would be consulted for standards; businesses were not trusted to set and regulate accounting standards. A common practice in the 1920s was to adjust asset values upward to the highest market value arguably misleading investors prior to the 1929 crash (Zeff, 2005, para. 10). In response, CAP and the SEC strongly mandated historical cost accounting as the acceptable basis of reporting. Shortly after, the U.S. was brought into WWII directing the CAP’s focus to issues pertaining to war time accounting. In addition, the CAP addressed the issues of the exclusion of unrealized profit from income, the use of capital surplus to offset losses, and notes and accounts receivable from officers, employees, and affiliated companies. The most notable item during the CAP’s tenure summed up was its ARBs issued in response to congress’s decision permitting companies to use the LIFO inventory method. This was a rare instance that tax policy influenced GAAP and was initially directed to companies purchasing natural metals because the FIFO method was equated to higher income taxes due to the time lapse between the asset’s acquisition and sale (Zeff, 2005). The method was available to all industries in 1939. While CAP was praised for addressing questionable reporting practices prior to the crash; it was mostly labeled as weak by critics for failing to set a uniform accounting framework to mitigate comparability issues. At the advice of the AIA, now known as the AICPA, the Accounting Principles Board replaced the CAP. ARB 43 was quickly published to restate all Accounting Research Bulletins and eliminate any superseded ARBs. The research driven APB published 31 opinions. The first few answered reporting questions regarding the investment credit per the Revenue Act of 1962 allotting businesses a credit for a â€Å"†¦specified percentage of the cost of certain depreciable assets placed into service after 1961† (FASB, 1962, para.1). The board concluded that the credit may be recorded as an offset to net income over the asset’s life or as a reduction in acquisition cost during the period it occurred. This is important because it is a conceptual precursor to today’s section 179 and bonus depreciation credits of which most small and medium sized businesses depend on and consider when determining capital investments. All opinions regarding credits and other tax reporting issues were later superseded by the FASB’s statement number 109, Accounting for Income Tax. Many of the APB’s remaining opinions dealt with emerging issues brought about by the postindustrial economy. For instance, the board developed guidelines for intangible assets such as goodwill, the equity method of accounting for common stock, accounting for employee stock options, the reporting of extraordinary items in the income statement, and set the criteria to use pooling of interest or the purchase method in business combinations. The most controversial accomplishment of the APB was its 1970 publication Basic Concepts and Accounting Principles Underlying Financial Statements of Business Enterprises. The board’s issuance of this as a non-authoritative â€Å"standard† rather than opinion was met with negative criticism as it failed to commit to any conceptual framework solutions and reaffirmed the fundamental disagreement among members on this topic. The board was soon after dissolved and replaced by the FASB with new, independent members in 1973. Nearly all APB Opinions were superseded by FASB statements (FAS) at different points in time. The FASB remains the authoritative source for private sector accounting practices today. The Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 restated the FASB’s position in setting accounting standards. The FASB does not have the authority to enforce standards. The responsibility has always been with managers to prepare and file financial statements in accordance to GAAP with the SEC. Auditors, overseen by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), issue opinions on the conformity and accuracy of the financial statements. The role of auditors has become increasingly crucial in the post Enron era. The FASB remains committed to addressing any deficiencies in the reporting process and meeting regularly with the PCAOB and SEC to prevent future financial disasters. Probably the most serious issues to date addressed by the FASB resulted from the subprime mortgage crisis and the subsequent financial crisis of 2008. According to Leslie Seidman (2011), chairman of the FASB, high profile controversy relating to the determination of the fair value of assets and liabilities in an illiquid market prompted the issuance of FAS 157, Fair Value Measurements. Effective November 2007, the standard expanded disclosure for fair value measurements and included changes in fair value practice â€Å"†¦ for certain entities† (FASB, 2006, para. 1). The FAS 133 released in January 2008 provided new and additional guidance on derivatives and designated a team within the FASB to assist with statement implementation. The FASB works to â€Å"harmonize† the previously mentioned standards and all others with International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). Discussion of international accounting principles has occurred for decades and an International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) has existed since 1973. It was not until the 1990s when globalization motivated the FASB to deliberate a strategic plan for international activities. In 2002, the FASB and IASB started collaborating to â€Å"converge† US GAAP and International Accounting Standards. A memorandum of understanding was released by the two boards in 2006 and amended in 2008. In 2011, the FASB sent a letter to the IFRS Foundation Trustees describing its views on many key issues. The FASB continues to balance long term IASB projects with its work on issues relating to US GAAP. REFERENCES Financial Accounting Standards Board. (1962). APB 2: Accounting for the â€Å"Investment Credit†. Retrieved from http://www.fasb.org/cs/BlobServer?blobkey=idblobwhere=1175820900137blobheader=application%2Fpdfblobcol=urldatablobtable=MungoBlobs Financial Accounting Standards Board. (2006). Summary of Statement No. 157. Fair Value Measurements. Retrieved from http://www.fasb.org/summary/stsum157.shtml Financial Accounting Standards Board. (2012). International Convergence of Accounting Standards –Overview. IASB-FASB Update Report. Retrieved from http://www.fasb.org/jsp/FASB/Page/SectionPagecid=1176156245663 Seidman, L.F. â€Å"The Role of the Accounting Profession in Preventing Another Financial Crisis.† U.S. Senate Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs Subcommittee on Securities, Insurance, and Investment [Testimony]. FASB. April 6, 2011. Zeff, S. A. (2005). The Evolution of U.S. GAAP: The Political Forces behind Professional Standards. The CPA Joural, Retrieved fro m http://www.nysscpa.org/cpajournal/2005/105/infocus/p18.htm

Sunday, October 13, 2019

Ownership of a Company

Ownership of a Company Introduction In this assignment, I will be discussing about the scenario and the legal areas in which someone members may have been in breach of. I will also be deliberating whether if Susan as a shareholder, may also have liability as a director within the company and if he has breached any of her statutory duties. Body [1]Under the Companies Act 2006, the duties and responsibilities of a company director(s) has been set out in this Act. Under sections 171-182 of the Act, it provides the possibility and nature of these, by listing a clearly what the fiduciary obligations of the directors are. The Act frameworks the statutory government for the duties of directors, that entails the seven principles that are a necessity obligation for directors. A Company Director(s) is a person or people whom are chosen to manage the companys affairs, activities and financial state, to guarantee that all legislative requirements of the company, is met. Director(s) must be sure to act legitimately and reliably, and make decisions that will profit not only the company, but the members within the company too. It is the duty of the Director(s) to make sure that the company triumphs by attaining its corporate purposes. Under sections 170-172 Companies Act 2006, company directors have an obligation to act by means of how far it can go. [2]In the case of Re Smith Fawcett Ltd [1942] 1 All ER 542, which is very significant under section 172 of the Companies Act 2006, which concerns the importance of the interests of the company. Article 10 states that company executives could decline to enlist share exchanges. Mr Fawcett, one of the two executives and shareholders, had passed on to Mr Smith who is another executive of the company, declined to enlist an exchange of shares to the late Mr Fawcetts agents. Also in the case of [3]Percival v Wright [1902] 2 Ch 401 it was held that the duty of care wasnt to the shareholders but to the company itself. Swinfen Eady J made the following statement, It was strenuously urged that, though incorporation affected the relations of the shareholders to the external world, the company thereby becoming a distinct entity, the position of the shareholders inter se was not a ffected, and was the same as that of partners or shareholders in an unincorporated company. I am unable to adopt that view [4]A large portion of the shares were purchased, and the other half offered to the initiators. This case was held by Lord Greene that without mala fides, this was appropriate. Privately owned businesses are much more analogous to partnership than to public companies. He made this statement, [5]The principles to be applied in cases where the articles of a company confer a discretion on directors are, for the present purposes, free from doubt. They must exercise their discretion bona fide in what they consider not what a court may consider is in the interests of the company, and not for any collateral purpose. Under section 176 of the Companies Act 2006, Susan has an obligation to avoid undisclosed profits. [6]As demonstrated in the case of Boston Deep Sea Fishing and Ice Co V Ansell (1888) 39 Ch D 339, it is obvious that a business who rejects a representative wrongfully, will effectively protect the claim on the off chance that it in this way reveals proof of prior gross unfortunate behaviour by the worker, regardless of the possibility that it was unconscious of the offense when it fired the representatives work. The issue for this situation was whether a similar guard applies where the business has neglected to make a PILON as per the terms of an agreement of work. [7]The Court of Appeal held that, without authoritative arrangements despite what might be expected, the business was not qualified for maintaining a strategic distance from the results of selecting, to practice the PILON clause on revelation that an outline expulsion could have been supported. It will only be right for Susan to return any profits that was made from this, back to the business. She has also breached her duty under section 182 and under section 172 of the Companies Act 2006, which is failing her duty to promote the success of the business. [8]Under section 174 of the Companies Act 2006, Clayton is in possible break of his obligation to practice with reasonable care, skill and diligence. [9]This was first set out by Romer J in the case of Re City Equitable Fire Insurance Co [1925] Ch 407, were the case was regarding the duties of directors and precisely the duty of care of these directors. This is to express that if a director for example is to be an expect in the field area of computers such as Clayton, who is a Software Engineer, the standard or care and knowledge that will be expected from him and toward his duties, will be that of a person who has high knowledge in this area. Clayton is an expect with computers so in this case, he has an expect in this area and as the director of the company, and obliged to follow his duties, he shouldnt have allowed himself to be distracted and completed the task to the best of his abilities, by carefully checking that the computers are full functioning. Not only was he unprofessio nal in his duty, he was cost the company a loss, as the computers are worthless. As developed in Re DJan of London Ltd [1994] 1 BCLC 561, directors are obliged to perform unbiased duty of care, founded on what must is deemed rationally and anticipated of a director. Similar standards was raised in the cases of [10]Dorchester Finance Co Ltd v Stebbing Ors[1989] BCLC 498, were Dorchester Finance which had gone indebted, made a claim against Mr Stebbing and two other non-official executive bookkeepers who regularly marked limitless tickets to ride which were later countersigned by Mr Stebbing. It was held that executives of a business will undoubtedly act in compliance with common decency and considering a legitimate concern for the business. They additionally needed to show such ability and care as ought to be sensibly anticipated from individuals with their insight and experience. Glen has breached his duties under the Companies Act 2006, section 177. Glen owns a duty of care to reveal her interest in the proposed contract. Glen didnt act in good faith but rather, found a way to con more money out of the company. Members of Wireless Us Ltd, may choose to ratify the contract based on misconduct by the [11]director amounting to negligence, default, breach of duty or breach of trust in relation to the company. As Glen failed to declare any profit that was made from this transaction, he is liable to make sure that all profits made has be paid directly back to Wireless Us Ltd. This was similarly demonstrated in the case of [12]Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver [1942] UKHL 1, that involved the regulation contrary to executives from captivating company chances in desecration of their obligation of allegiance. In this case the court held that, if a director takes advantage of a prospect, the director has breached his duties even if he was caught before being able to tak e advantage. Equally to what I stated earlier, the breach can be authorised. It must be distinguished that under section 182 of the Companies Act 2006, Glen obligates a criminal offence if he fails to unveil his interest with the ongoing contractual agreement. You could also say that both Susan and Glen, are both in breach of section 174 of the Companies Act 2006. As well as be in breach of exercising the independent judgment, under section 173 of the Companies Act 2006. The lawful results of the scenarios and conceivable remedies include: Ratification by individuals, under section 1157 of the Companies Act 2006 alleviation from court, and under section 175 of the Companies Act 2006 which is the capacity for executives to approve. It is vital to note that under section 232 of the Companies Act 2006, the organisation is restricted from giving directors repayment in regard of rupture of obligation. Cliff, Glen and Clayton own a duty of care to Faith to treat her equally as they do with other members with the Company. [13]As directors of the company, they are breaching their executive obligation by not acting accordingly to their position. It is the duty of the directors to make sure that they provide their employees with the resources they need, in order from them to able to do their job as per instructed. Under the Companies Act 2006, it is obligatory that the directors to respect the interests of their employees. Meaning that, they must listen to the request of their employees, as well as take into consideration anything they may request for, especially if the request made is in benefit of the company, and if their will also impact the outcome of their job performance. Shareholders and executives have two totally unique parts within a corporation. Shareholders only own the company by their possession of the shares that they have bought within the company. Whilst directors, are those that manage the cooperation and, have a say in how its operated. Unless it has been stated otherwise, a shareholder shouldnt and neither does it have right to act as a director. The same applies to that of a director. In this case, doesnt have any liability as the director or the company, as it is specified that she is only a shareholder. [14]The partition in law amongst executives and shareholders can bring about disarray in privately owned businesses. On the off chance that a few people set up a business together they regularly consider themselves to be accomplices in the business. That relationship is frequently spoken to in a business, by them all being both executives and shareholders. The issue with this is that, Company Law requires a few choices to be made by the executives in executive gatherings and others to be made by the shareholders, by composed resolutions or by resolutions at a general gathering. In a rather off chance way, you could say that shareholders do have a say in the companys management/decisions as under the Companies Act 2006, when it comes to some choices such as changing the articles with in company, the executives of the company cannot do so, without consulting and getting consent, from the shareholders. Conclusion Under section 40 of the Companies Act 2006, it is intended to manage the cost of assurance to guiltless third party, that go into exchanges with the business, and gives that, for a man managing a business in accordance with some basic honesty, the force of the executives that tie with the business, or approve others to do as such, is esteemed free of any restriction under the business constitution. A third party will automatically assume that the directors of the company have some sort of authority to bind the company, with there is no establish power in the company. This is a typical entanglement executives fall into and convey chance they may not by any means figure it out. Company executives will owe a trustee obligation and an obligation of care, regardless of whether this is set out in their contractual agreement. These obligations apply to both official and non-official executives. The statutory obligations supplant many existing precedent-based law and even-handed standards. The statutory obligations are owed to the business and only the business will have the capacity to authorise them. Bibliography Companies Act 2006 Section 239, (legislation.gov.uk) accessed 18 December 2016 Duties and Personal Liabilities of A Company Director, accessed 18 December 2016 In Re Smith and Fawcett Ltd: CA 1942, (Company, 22 August 2016) accessed 18 December 2016 Kershaw D, Company law in context: Text and materials (2nd edn, Oxford University Press 2012) 335 Boston deep sea fishing and ice Co v Ansell: CA 1888, (Agency, 9 July 2015) accessed 18 December 2016 Belcher A, Directors decisions and the law: Promoting success (Routledge 2013) 78 MÃ ¤ntysaari P, Comparative corporate governance: Shareholders as a rule-maker (Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH Co. K 2005) 182 Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver: HL 20 Feb 1942, (Company, 28 July 2016) accessed 20 December 2016 Hannigan B, Company law (Oxford University Press 2015) Worthington S, Sealy Worthingtons text, cases, and materials in company law (Oxford University Press 2016) 338 [1] Duties and Personal Liabilities of A Company Director, accessed 18 December 2016 [2] In Re Smith and Fawcett Ltd: CA 1942, (Company, 22 August 2016) accessed 18 December 2016 [3] Sarah Worthington, Sealy Worthingtons text, cases, and materials in company law (Oxford University Press 2016) 338 [4] In Re Smith and Fawcett Ltd: CA 1942, (Company, 22 August 2016) accessed 18 December 2016 [5] David Kershaw, Company law in context: Text and materials (2nd edn, Oxford University Press 2012) 335 [6] Boston deep sea fishing and ice Co v Ansell: CA 1888, (Agency, 9 July 2015) accessed 18 December 2016 [7] Boston deep sea fishing and ice Co v Ansell: CA 1888, (Agency, 9 July 2015) accessed 18 December 2016 [8] Alice Belcher, Directors decisions and the law: Promoting success (Routledge 2013) 78 [9] Petri MÃ ¤ntysaari, Comparative corporate governance: Shareholders as a rule-maker (Springer-Verlag Berlin and Heidelberg GmbH Co. K 2005) 182 [10] Dorchester Finance Co Ltd v Stebbing Ors[1989] BCLC 498 [11] Companies Act 2006 Section 239, (legislation.gov.uk) accessed 18 December 2016 [12] Regal (Hastings) Ltd v Gulliver: HL 20 Feb 1942, (Company, 28 July 2016) accessed 20 December 2016 [13] Brenda Hannigan, Company law (Oxford University Press 2015) [14] Brenda Hannigan, Company law (Oxford University Press 2015)

Saturday, October 12, 2019

Quen Elizabeth I :: essays research papers

Queen Elizabeth I King Henry VIII was married to Catherine of Aragon when the young girl Anne Boleyn caught his eye. Henry believed himself in love with the young Anne and was determined to end his marriage with the older Catherine. King Henry wanted an annulment from Catherine, yet to obtain one meant having the Pope’s approval. Catherine had a powerful connection to many such as the great emperor Charles V, the Pope would not offend such a man and denied King Henry his annulment to his Queen Catherine. King Henry discreetly engaged n an affair with the young Anne Boleyn.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  King Henry and his advisors established their own church breaking away from th Catholic Church and formed the Church of England. King Henry now had full ecclesiastical power over England known as reformation. With king Henry’s new power over the church he would now obtain his anullument from Catherine of Aragon. 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Januaray of 1533 King Henry married his pregnant Anne, who was belived to be carrinying the male heir to the throne. â€Å"Both Henry and Anne believed with their whole heart that the child she was expecting was a boy, and had every reason to as the philosophers and astronomers assured the jubilant king   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Scruton 2  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   that this time he would have a son.† (Thomas, par. 4) To the disappointment of the King, Queen and her supporters Anne gave birth to a girl, Elizabeth Tudor. â€Å"Elizabeth's birth was one of the most exciting political events in 16th century European history; rarely had so much turmoil occurred on behalf of a mere infant.† (Englishhistory) 4 Elizabeth’s birth was greeted with little celebration, however three days later she had a grand Christening a Greenwich Palace. 'Henry, beside himself with disappointment, did not attend the christening.' 2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  King Henry’s attitude towards his young wife changed aftr the birth of his Princess and he openly show his tiredness towards his Queen. His only heir was a young girl, and this was considered undesirable to have a woman ruler. France even had laws to prevent such an occurrence. Anne tried to have a son yet failed to do so miscarrying and then giving birth to a premature dead baby boy. Some have said that she lost her savior 1   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As Anne had her second mishap Catherine of Aragon died leaving Henry wanted yet another wife in the hope of producing a male heir. Anne was charge with adultery, witchcraft, and incest in which the jury found her guilty and was sentenced to death by beheadment.

Friday, October 11, 2019

DNA Profiling and Ethics

DNA Profiling and Ethics Reflection Journal Vanshika Khemka 14th October 2012 â€Å"33 autorad off† On 10th September 1984, geneticist Alec Jeffrey’s wrote these three words in his red desk diary. This marked the completion of an experiment, which studied how inherited illnesses pass through families. The experiment failed entirely. (McKie, 2009) However, this led to the most profound discovery: the world’s first DNA fingerprint. Now, the smallest swab of blood or sweat can determine the identity of an individual.We will discuss this process of DNA profiling in this journal. After going into the in-depth analysis of DNA profiling, we will discuss its uses and the ethical and legal issues that swarm the subject. |What is DNA Profiling? | Formally, DNA profiling is the analysis of short, highly specific, tandem-repeated- or hypervariable- genomic sequences, minisatellites known as variable number of tandem repeats (VNTRs), to detect the degree of relatedness to ano ther sequence of oligonucleotides. Segan, 1992) It is a technique employed by  forensic scientists  to assist in the identification of individuals by their respective  DNA  profiles, which are encrypted sets of numbers that reflect a person's DNA makeup and can also be used as the person's identifier. |The Process | Deoxyribonucleic Acid (â€Å"DNA†) is a six-foot long molecule found in the nucleus of every cell in the body. With the exception of identical twins, each individual’s DNA is unique.Thus the first step in the profiling process is to obtain a sample of the individual’s DNA, which is usually done using a buccal swab (i. e. from the cheek). We could also use a sample of blood, semen or hair. This sample is then analyzed using different techniques; discussed below. |Techniques of DNA Profiling | |Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) |It is a technique that exploits variations in homologous DNA sequences. It refers to a difference bet ween samples of homologous DNA molecules that come from differing locations of restriction enzyme sites, and to a related laboratory technique by which these segments can be illustrated. In this process, the DNA is first chemically extracted from the sample. It is then fragmented using restriction enzymes. These enzymes act like scissors and cut the DNA where a specific sequence occurs.By gel electrophoresis, the DNA fragments are placed in a gel through which an electric current is passed. Owing to the negative charge of the DNA, the fragments migrate toward the positively charged pole of the gel. The DNA is then denatured and Southern blotting transfers the DNA fragments to a nylon membrane. A buffer solution is pulled through the gel and membrane and absorbed in paper towels. Hybridization, brought about by radioactive probe, shows only those fragments of interest from the polymorphic area of the DNA.Autoradiography is carried out next where the blot is placed in contact with a p iece of x-ray film, where the radioactivity probe exposes the film and bands appear on the film where the probe has bound to the DNA. The results are then interpreted and in the case of a criminal investigation or civil case, it is matched against the suspect’s DNA profile, thus completing the process. (Hoeffel, 1990) This method is however very long-winded, cumbersome and the combination of all the above-mentioned steps could take about a month to complete.A large sample is required which makes it tougher. Hence other methods are adopted in recent times. |Polymerase Chain Reaction | With the invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, DNA profiling took huge strides forward in both discriminating power and the ability to recover information from very small (or degraded) starting samples. PCR greatly amplifies the amounts of a specific region of DNA.This process increases the number of copies of the allele, making enough DNA to allow the test to be performed on what may have originally been a DNA sample of insufficient molecular weight. Due to this technique the test can be conducted using a single hair strand. (Hoeffel, 1990) This process consists of a series of 20-40 repeated temperature changes, called cycles, with each cycle commonly consisting of 2-3 discrete temperature steps. The cycling is often preceded by a single temperature step (called  hold) at a high temperature (>90 °C), and followed by one hold at the end for final product extension or brief storage.The temperatures used and the length of time they are applied in each cycle depend on a variety of parameters. These include the enzyme used for DNA synthesis, the concentration of divalent ions and dNTPs in the reaction, and the melting temperature (Tm) of the primers. The rest of the process is similar to the RFLP method. The major breakthrough is the fact that now the smallest trace of evidence can be used for DNA profiling as opposed to the large samples needed in th e RFLP method. |Short Tandem Repeat Analysis |Also known as Microsatellites, short tandem repeats is used as an extension of the PCR Method. This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). (Hoeffel, 1990) Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR  loci  (locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence-specific primers and amplified using  PCR.The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using  electrophoresis. |Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism | This is another technique that is much faster than RFLP and uses PCR. It not only has higher reproducibility, resolution, and sensitivity at the whole genome level compared to other techniques, but it also has the capability to amplify between 50 and 100 fra gments at one time. In addition, no prior sequence information is needed for amplification (Meudt & Clarke 2007).As a result, AFLP has become extremely beneficial in the study of bacteria, fungi, and plants, where much is still unknown about the genomic makeup of various organisms. |Applications of DNA Profiling | DNA profiling is extensively used for paternity testing and forensic analysis for criminal investigations. Parental testing is the use of genetic fingerprinting to determine whether two individuals have a biological parent–child relationship.Comparing the DNA sequence of an individual to that of another individual can show whether one of them was derived from the other. Specific sequences are usually looked at to see whether they were copied verbatim from one of the individual's genome to the other. (Berry, 1991) As for forensic analysis, laboratories compare the molecular weights of fragments of DNA from the suspect sample and crime sample and decide whether the t wo fragments could have come from the same individual. There are major benefits from this technology: the potential to make speedy and robust suspected offender identi? ations through automated profile comparisons in centralized criminal justice databases; the ability to con? dently eliminate innocent suspects from investigations; the increased likelihood of generating reliable and persuasive evidence for use in court; a reduction in the cost of many investigations; the likely deterrent effect of DNA databasing on potential criminal offenders; and a possible increase in public con? dence in policing and in the wider judicial process. (Berry, 1991) We will explore the ramifications of this extensive use in the next section. Is it ethical? | Now that we know the widespread use of DNA profiling, we see the power that it has and the influence it can have when it comes to people’s lives and the verdict issued in criminal cases. But is this power justified on an ethical front? Is i t ethical to give so much power into the hands of the people responsible for carrying out these tests? Indeed, the development and application of DNA pro? ling has been widely described as the â€Å"greatest breakthrough in forensic science since ? ngerprinting. † However, the spread of forensic DNA pro? ing and databasing has also prompted a wide range of concerns about problems that may arise from the storage of tissue samples (especially those taken from individuals without consent) and the proliferating uses of genetic information by the police. (Williams & Johnson, 2006) One could say that DNA profiling violates basic ethical values. Based on the values of liberty, our rights are technically reduced by police powers, which have the right to take and retain fingerprints and DNA profiles and samples without consent. The Forensic Use of Bioinformation: Ethical Issues, 2007) â€Å"So act that you use humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always at the same time as an end, never merely as a means†; these words of wisdom imparted by Kant, also suggest that DNA profiling and the freedom to use that as evidence without explicit permission of the individual concerned would be using them as a means to an end and not an end in themselves. Therefore it can be argued that using DNA profiling takes away autonomy. The Forensic Use of Bioinformation: Ethical Issues, 2007) Spatial privacy is â€Å"a state of non-access to the individual’s physical or psychological self†. This is invaded by the nonconsensual taking of biological samples and fingerprints, and, to a lesser extent, by unwanted surveillance of the individual. And as can be inferred by the very nature of DNA profiling, informational privacy and anonymity is infringed upon by using samples obtained from databases and tests. (The Forensic Use of Bioinformation: Ethical Issues, 2007)Additional issues arise if identifiable samples or profiles on a forensic d atabase are used for research outside the narrow context of identification and police investigations. Using DNA profiling for paternity testing and for determining one’s lineage can be very harmful as it violates the privacy of the people concerned. It could cause potential moral and mental harm to the parents and the children concerned as entire families can be uprooted as a result of this. Past criminal cases which used paternity testing also prove that relatives and families can be affected mentally as well as physically.People in witness protection programs as well as people on the police databases can be negatively affected if a previously unknown family link is reestablished without their knowledge and consent. (Haimes, 2006) The list of legal and ethical concerns is endless. The question the arises that which side wins? Benefits of DNA profiling, or the issues concerning DNA profiling? |Which side is stronger? | Having seen the costs and benefits of DNA profiling and i ts usage, the benefits are debatable on moral and ethical grounds.However, in my personal opinion, it does not have to be black and white; good or bad. There can be a grey area, a middle ground, where DNA profiling is neither entirely correct nor entirely wrong. There have been cases where DNA evidence has saved many innocent lives and incriminated people who had been causing immense harm to others. Thus, we should pass legislations, which aim at curbing violations and encouraging true and just practices. In the cases where the DNA of individuals is being used as evidence or if parental testing is being done, their should be informed consent by the individuals.They should be aware of the sensitive nature of the information and should be expressly asked for consent to have the data published or used as evidence. The National DNA Database set up in the UK is an example of the dangers and benefits DNA profiling can hold. Personally, a national DNA database in all countries would be a v ery risky venture as a lot of personal information would be at stake and inter country rivalries could result. We have established the power of DNA profiling and the power that people who have access to this information have. So I would like to end with a quote.One’s interpretation of this quote can determine where they stand on the matter. â€Å"It is time for you to gather some idea of what power means. The first thing you must realize is that power is collective. The individual has power in so far as he ceases to be an individual†¦ The second thing for you to realize is that power is power over human beings. Over the body- but, above all, over the mind. Power over matter- external reality, as you would call it- is not important. Already our control over matter is absolute. † – George Orwell, Nineteen Eighty-Four Bibliography | Berry, D. A. (1991). Inferences Using DNA Profiling in Forensic Identification and Paternity Cases. Statistical Science , 6 (2), pp. 175-205. Haimes, E. (2006, June 1). Social and Ethical Issues in the Use of Familial Searching in Forensic Investigations: Insight from Family and Kinship Studies. Journal of Law, Medicine and Ethics , 263-276. Hoeffel, J. C. (1990, January). The Dar Side of DNA Profiling: Unreliable Scientific Evidence Meets the Criminal Defendant. Stanford Law Review , 42 (2), pp. 465-538.McKie, R. (2009, May 24). Eureka moment that led to the discovery of DNA fingerprinting. Retrieved October 10, 2012, from The Guardian: http://www. guardian. co. uk/science/2009/may/24/dna-fingerprinting-alec-jeffreys Segan, C. J. (1992, February 15). DNA Profiling. The Dictionary of Modern Medicine . The Forensic Use of Bioinformation: Ethical Issues. (2007, September). NuField Council on Bioethics . Williams, R. , & Johnson, P. (2006, June 1). Inclusiveness, Effectiveness and Intrusiveness: Issues in the Developing Uses of DNA Pro? ling in Support of Criminal Investigations. Journal of Law, Medicine and Et hics , 234-247. Wikipedia